DC-DC topologies
| Topology | V_out vs V_in | Isolation | Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Buck | V_out < V_in | No | Step-down, general |
| Boost | V_out > V_in | No | Step-up from battery |
| Buck-boost | Either | No | Inverted polarity |
| Ćuk | Either | No | Two inductors, low ripple |
| SEPIC | Either | No | Single-inductor alternative |
| Flyback | Either | Yes | Low-mid power (< 200 W) |
| Forward | Either | Yes | Medium power (50–500 W) |
| Push-pull | Either | Yes | Medium power |
| Half-bridge | Either | Yes | Medium-high power (200 W – 1 kW) |
| Full-bridge | Either | Yes | High power (kW+) |
| LLC resonant | Either | Yes | High efficiency, high power |
| Phase-shifted full bridge | Either | Yes | Server PSUs, EV chargers |
| Charge pump | Integer ratios | No | Low-power on-chip rails |
AC-DC
- Linear: transformer + rectifier + LDO — simple, heavy, low-efficiency.
- Switching (offline): rectifier + PFC + isolated converter (flyback, LLC).
- PFC stage: mandatory for > 75 W (IEC 61000-3-2) to meet harmonic limits.
- Bidirectional: for EV / grid-tied inverters — PWM inverter + LC filter.
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